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The mustang is a free-roaming horse of the Western United States, descended from horses brought to the Americas by the Spanish conquistadors. Mustangs are often referred to as wild horses, but because they are descended from once-domesticated animals, they are actually feral horses. The original mustangs were Colonial Spanish horses, but many other breeds and types of horses contributed to the modern mustang, now resulting in varying phenotypes. Some free-roaming horses are relatively unchanged from the original Spanish stock, most strongly represented in the most isolated populations.

In 1971, the United States Congress recognized that "wild free-roaming horses and burros are living symbols of the historic and pioneer spirit of the West, which continue to contribute to the diversity of life forms within the Nation and enrich the lives of the American people."[1] The free-roaming horse population is managed and protected by the U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM).

Controversy surrounds the sharing of land and resources by mustangs with the livestock of the ranching industry, and also with the methods by which the BLM manages their population numbers. The most common method of population management used is rounding up excess population and offering them for adoption by private individuals. There are inadequate numbers of adopters, so many once free-roaming horses now live in temporary and long-term holding areas, raising concerns that the animals may be sold for horse meat. Additional debate centers on the question of whether horses in North America restore a native animal to the lands they historically inhabited or represent an introduced invasive species. Etymology and usage

Although free-roaming Mustangs are called "wild" horses, they descend from feral domesticated horses.[a]

According to the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), the English word mustang was likely borrowed from two essentially synonymous Spanish words, mestengo (or mesteño) and mostrenco.[4] English lexicographer John Minsheu glossed both words together as 'strayer' in his dictionary of 1599.[4] Mostrenco was used since the 13th century, while mestengo is attested from the late 15th.[4]

In Mexican Spanish, both, mesteño and mostrenco were used interchangeably and meant untamed, wild ownerless horses, mules and cattle that roamed free in the vastness of the Mexican countryside; synonymous with untamed, unbroken, bronco, ferocious, wild.[5][6][7] The Mexican definition is the one adopted by the Americans.[8]

In Spain, Mesteño referred originally to any stray livestock animal of uncertain ownership that ended under the ownership of the powerful transhumant merino sheep ranchers' guild in medieval Spain, called the Mesta (Honrado Concejo de la Mesta, 'Honorable Council of the Mesta'); in Castilian Spanish, mesteño means, "lo que toca o pertenece a la Mesta" which translates to "what belongs to the Mesta".[9][10][11][4] The name of the Mesta derived ultimately from the Latin: mixta, lit. 'mixed', referring to the common ownership of the guild's animals by multiple parties.[11] While Mostrenco, is any goods, including beasts and jewels, that had been abandoned or whose ownership is uncertain and, as such, after a year and one day they fall under the ownership of the Prince or to the community that has privilege over it. It derives from mostrar, which means "to present" or "to manifest" because by law, after finding said goods, they must present or manifest them to the authorities.[12][13][14] In Spain, it also means a person who doesn't have a home or a master, someone who is ignorant or slow to reason or learn, and someone who is fat and heavy.[15] By 1936, the English 'mustang' had been loaned back into Spanish as mustango.[4]

"Mustangers" (Spanish: mesteñeros) were cowboys (vaqueros) who caught, broke, and drove free-ranging horses to market in the Spanish and later American territories of what is now northern Mexico, Texas, New Mexico, and California. They caught the horses that roamed the Great Plains, the San Joaquin Valley of California, and later the Great Basin, from the 18th century to the early 20th century.[16][17] Characteristics and ancestry Mustang mare and foal with stallion in the West Warm Springs HMA (Herd Management Area) in Oregon See also: List of BLM Herd Management Areas

The original mustangs were Colonial Spanish horses, but many other breeds and types of horses contributed to the modern mustang, resulting in varying phenotypes. Mustangs of all body types are described as surefooted and having good endurance. They may be of any coat color.[18] Throughout all the Herd Management Areas managed by the Bureau of Land Management, light riding horse type predominates, though a few horses with draft horse characteristics also exist, mostly kept separate from other mustangs and confined to specific areas.[19] Some herds show the signs of the introduction of Thoroughbred or other light racehorse-types into herds, a process that also led in part to the creation of the American Quarter Horse.[20]

The mustang of the modern west has several different breeding populations today which are genetically isolated from one another and thus have distinct traits traceable to particular herds.[citation needed] Genetic contributions to today's free-roaming mustang herds include assorted ranch horses that escaped to or were turned out on the public lands, and stray horses used by the United States Cavalry.[b] For example, in Idaho some Herd Management Areas (HMA) contain animals with known descent from Thoroughbred and Quarter Horse stallions turned out with feral herds.[23] The herds located in two HMAs in central Nevada produce Curly Horses.[24][25] Others, such as certain bands in Wyoming, have characteristics consistent with gaited horse breeds.[26]

Many herds were analyzed for Spanish blood group polymorphism (commonly known as "blood markers") and microsatellite DNA loci.[27] Blood marker analysis verified a few to have significant Spanish ancestry, namely the Cerbat Mustang, Pryor Mountain Mustang, and some horses from the Sulphur Springs HMA.[28] The Kiger Mustang is also said to have been found to have Spanish blood[19][dubious – discuss] and subsequent microsatellite DNA confirmed the Spanish ancestry of the Pryor Mountain Mustang.[29]

Horses in several other HMAs exhibit Spanish horse traits, such as dun coloration and primitive markings.[c] Genetic studies of other herds show various blends of Spanish, gaited horse, draft horse, and pony influences.[34]

Height varies across the west, however, most are small, generally 14 to 15 hands (56 to 60 inches, 142 to 152 cm), and not taller than 16 hands (64 inches, 163 cm), even in herds with draft or Thoroughbred ancestry.[d] Some breeders of domestic horses consider the mustang herds of the west to be inbred and of inferior quality. However, supporters of the mustang argue that the animals are merely small due to their harsh living conditions and that natural selection has eliminated many traits that lead to weakness or inferiority.[citation needed]

The now-defunct American Mustang Association developed a breed standard for those mustangs that carry morphological traits associated with the early Spanish horses. These include a well-proportioned body with a clean, refined head with wide forehead and small muzzle. The facial profile may be straight or slightly convex. Withers are moderate in height, and the shoulder is to be "long and sloping". The standard considers a very short back, deep girth and muscular coupling over the loins as desirable. The croup is rounded, neither too flat nor goose-rumped. The tail is low-set. The legs are to be straight and sound. Hooves are round and dense.[18] Dun color dilution and primitive markings are particularly common among horses of Spanish type.[35] History 1493–1600 Large herd of free-roaming mustangs galloping through the plains of Utah

Modern horses were first brought to the Americas with the conquistadors, beginning with Columbus, who imported horses from Spain to the West Indies on his second voyage in 1493.[37] Horses came to the mainland with the arrival of Cortés in 1519.[38] By 1525, Cortés had imported enough horses to create a nucleus of horse-breeding in Mexico.[39]

One hypothesis held that horse populations north of Mexico originated in the mid-1500s with the expeditions of Narváez, de Soto or Coronado, but it has been refuted.[40][41] Horse breeding in sufficient numbers to establish a self-sustaining population developed in what today is the southwestern United States starting in 1598 when Juan de Oñate founded Santa Fe de Nuevo México. From 75 horses in his original expedition, he expanded his herd to 800, and from there the horse population increased rapidly.[41]

While the Spanish also brought horses to Florida in the 16th century,[42] the Choctaw and Chickasaw horses of what is now the southeastern United States are believed to be descended from western mustangs that moved east, and thus Spanish horses in Florida did not influence the mustang.[41] 17th- and 18th-century dispersal Dispersal of horses, 1600–1775[43]

Native American people readily integrated use of the horse into their cultures. They quickly adopted the horse as a primary means of transportation. Horses replaced the dog as a pack animal and changed Native cultures in terms of warfare, trade, and even diet—the ability to run down bison allowed some people to abandon agriculture for hunting from horseback.[44]

Santa Fe became a major trading center in the 1600s.[45] Although Spanish laws prohibited Native Americans from riding horses, the Spanish used Native people as servants, and some were tasked to care for livestock, thus learning horse-handling skills.[43] Oñate's colonists also lost many of their horses.[46] Some wandered off because the Spanish generally did not keep them in fenced enclosures,[47] and Native people in the area captured some of these estrays.[48] Other horses were traded by Oñate' settlers for women, or food and other goods.[41] Initially, horses obtained by Native people were simply eaten, along with any cattle that were captured or stolen.[49] But as individuals with horse-handling skills fled Spanish control, sometimes with a few trained horses, the local tribes began using horses for riding and as pack animals. By 1659, settlements reported being raided for horses, and in the 1660s the "Apache"[e] were trading human captives for horses.[50] The Pueblo Revolt of 1680 also resulted in large numbers of horses coming into the hands of Native people, the largest one-time influx in history.[48]

From the Pueblo people, horses were traded to the Apache, Navajo and Utes. The Comanche acquired horses and provided them to the Shoshone.[51] The Eastern Shoshone and Southern Utes became traders who distributed horses and horse culture from New Mexico to the northern plains.[52] West of the Continental Divide, horses distribution moved north quite rapidly along the western slopes of the Rocky Mountains, skirting desert regions[45] such as the Great Basin and the western Colorado Plateau.[52][f] Horses reached what today is southern Idaho by 1690.[43] The Northern Shoshone people in the Snake River valley had horses in 1700.[53][g] By 1730, they reached the Columbia Basin and were east of the Continental divide in the northern Great Plains.[43] The Blackfeet people of Alberta had horses by 1750.[54] The Nez Perce people in particular became master horse breeders, and developed one of the first distinctly American breeds, the Appaloosa. Most other tribes did not practice extensive amounts of selective breeding, though they sought out desirable horses through acquisition and quickly culled those with undesirable traits.[citation needed] By 1769, most Plain Indians had horses.[53][55]

In this period, Spanish missions were also a source of stray and stolen livestock, particularly in what today is Texas and California.[56] The Spanish brought horses to California for use at their missions and ranches, where permanent settlements were established in 1769.[55] Horse numbers grew rapidly, with a population of 24,000 horses reported by 1800.[57] By 1805, there were so many horses in California that people began to simply kill unwanted animals to reduce overpopulation.[58] However, due to the barriers presented by mountain ranges and deserts, the California population did not significantly influence horse numbers elsewhere at the time.[55][h] Horses in California were described as being of "exceptional quality".[58]

In the upper Mississippi basin and Great Lakes regions, the French were another source of horses. Although horse trading with native people was prohibited, there were individuals willing to indulge in illegal dealing, and as early as 1675, the Illinois people had horses. Animals identified as "Canadian", "French", or "Norman" were located in the Great Lakes region, with a 1782 census at Fort Detroit listing over 1000 animals.[60] By 1770, Spanish horses were found in that area,[43] and there was a clear zone from Ontario and Saskatchewan to St. Louis where Canadian-type horses, particularly the smaller varieties, crossbred with mustangs of Spanish ancestry. French-Canadian horses were also allowed to roam freely, and moved west, particularly influencing horse herds in the northern plains and inland northwest.[60]

Although horses were brought from Mexico to Texas as early as 1542, a stable population did not exist until 1686, when Alonso de León's expedition arrived with 700 horses. From there, later groups brought up thousands more, deliberately leaving some horses and cattle to fend for themselves at various locations, while others strayed.[61] By 1787, these animals had multiplied to the point that a roundup gathered nearly 8,000 "free-roaming mustangs and cattle".[62] West-central Texas, between the Rio Grande and Palo Duro Canyon, was said to have the most concentrated population of feral horses in the Americas.[54] Throughout the west, horses escaped human control and formed feral herds, and by the late 1700s, the largest numbers were found in what today are the states of Texas, Oklahoma, Colorado, and New Mexico.[54] 19th century Comanche territory, 1850, roughly corresponds to the location of the greatest numbers of Mustangs in the mid-19th century

An early 19th-century reference to mustangs by American sources came from Zebulon Pike, who in 1808 noted passing herds of "mustangs or wild horses". In 1821, Stephen Austin noted in his journal that he had seen about 150 mustangs.[63][i]

Estimates of when the peak population of mustangs occurred and total numbers vary widely between sources. No comprehensive census of feral horse numbers was ever performed until the time of the Wild and Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971 and any earlier estimates, particularly prior to the 20th century, are speculative.[64] Some sources simply state that "millions" of mustangs once roamed western North America.[65][66] In 1959, geographer Tom L. McKnight[j] suggested that the population peaked in the late 1700s or early 1800s, and the "best guesses apparently lie between two and five million".[54] Historian J. Frank Dobie hypothesized that the population peaked around the end of the Mexican–American War in 1848, stating: "My own guess is that at no time were there more than a million mustangs in Texas and no more than a million others scattered over the remainder of the West."[68] J. Edward de Steiguer[k] questioned Dobie's lower guess as still being too high.[70]

In 1839, the numbers of mustangs in Texas had been augmented by animals abandoned by Mexican settlers who had been ordered to leave the Nueces Strip.[71][72][l] Ulysses Grant, in his memoir, recalled seeing in 1846 an immense herd between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande in Texas: "As far as the eye could reach to our right, the herd extended. To the left, it extended equally. There was no estimating the number of animals in it; I have no idea that they could all have been corralled in the state of Rhode Island, or Delaware, at one time."[74] When the area was ceded to the U.S. in 1848, these horses and others in the surrounding areas were rounded up and trailed north and east,[75] resulting in the near-elimination of mustangs in that area by 1860.[73]

Farther west, the first known sighting of a free-roaming horse in the Great Basin was by John Bidwell near the Humboldt Sinks in 1841. Although John Charles Fremont noted thousands of horses in California,[76] the only horse sign he spoke of in the Great Basin, which he named, was tracks around Pyramid Lake, and the natives he encountered there were horseless.[77][m] In 1861, another party saw seven free-roaming horses near the Stillwater Range.[79] For the most part, free-roaming horse herds in the interior of Nevada were established in the latter part of the 1800s from escaped settlers' horses.[76][80][81] 20th century

In the early 1900s, thousands of free-roaming horses were rounded up for use in the Spanish–American War[82] and World War I.[83]

By 1920, Bob Brislawn, who worked as a packer for the U.S. government, recognized that the original mustangs were disappearing, and made efforts to preserve them, ultimately establishing the Spanish Mustang Registry.[84] In 1934, J. Frank Dobie stated that there were just "a few wild [feral] horses in Nevada, Wyoming and other Western states" and that "only a trace of Spanish blood is left in most of them"[85] remaining. Other sources agree that by that time, only "pockets" of mustangs that retained Colonial Spanish Horse type remained.[86]

By 1930, the vast majority of free-roaming horses were found west of Continental Divide, with an estimated population between 50,000 and 150,000.[87] They were almost completely confined to the remaining United States General Land Office (GLO)-administered public lands and National Forest rangelands in the 11 Western States.[88] In 1934, the Taylor Grazing Act established the United States Grazing Service to manage livestock grazing on public lands, and in 1946, the GLO was combined with the Grazing Service to form the Bureau of Land Management (BLM),[89] which, along with the Forest Service, was committed to removing feral horses from the lands they administered.[citation needed]

By the 1950s, the mustang population dropped to an estimated 25,000 horses.[90] Abuses linked to certain capture methods, including hunting from airplanes and poisoning water holes, led to the first federal free-roaming horse protection law in 1959.[91] This statute, titled "Use of aircraft or motor vehicles to hunt certain wild horses or burros; pollution of watering holes"[92] popularly known as the "Wild Horse Annie Act", prohibited the use of motor vehicles for capturing free-roaming horses and burros.[93] Protection was increased further by the Wild and Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971 (WFRHABA).[94]

The Wild and Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971 provided for protection of certain previously established herds of horses and burros. It mandated the BLM to oversee the protection and management of free-roaming herds on lands it administered, and gave U.S. Forest Service similar authority on National Forest lands.[64] A few free-ranging horses are also managed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service[95] and the National Park Service,[96] but for the most part they are not subject to management under the Act.[97] A census completed in conjunction with passage of the Act found that there were approximately 17,300 horses (25,300 combined population of horses and burros) on the BLM-administered lands and 2,039 on National Forests.[98] 21st century Nevada's State Quarter, featuring the mustang

The BLM has established Herd Management Areas to determine where horses will be sustained as free-roaming populations.[99] The BLM has established an Appropriate Management Level (AML) for each HMA, totaling 26,690 bureau-wide,[100][101][102] but the on-range mustang population in August 2017 was estimated to have grown to over 72,000 horses,[103] expanding to 88,090 in 2019.[100]

More than half of all free-roaming mustangs in North America are found in Nevada (which features the horses on its State Quarter), with other significant populations in California, Oregon, Utah, Montana, and Wyoming.[104][n] Another 45,000 horses are in holding facilities.[103] Land use controversies Prehistoric context Main article: Evolution of the horse See also: Domestication of the horse

The horse, clade Equidae, originated in North America 55 million years ago.[105] By the end of the Late Pleistocene, there were two lineages of the equine family known to exist in North America: the "caballine" or "stout-legged horse" belonging to the genus Equus, closely related to the modern horse (Equus caballus)[106] and Haringtonhippus francisci, the "stilt-legged horse", which is not closely related to any living equine.[107][108][109][110] At the end of the Last Glacial Period, the non-caballines went extinct and the caballines were extirpated from the Americas. Multiple factors that included changing climate and the impact of newly arrived human hunters may have been to blame.[111] Thus, before the Columbian Exchange, the youngest physical evidence (macrofossils-generally bones or teeth) for the survival of Equids in the Americas dates between ≈10,500 and 7,600 years before present.[112] Modern issues

Due in part to the prehistory of the horse, there is controversy as to the role mustangs have in the ecosystem as well as their rank in the prioritized use of public lands, particularly in relation to livestock. There are multiple viewpoints. Some supporters of mustangs on public lands assert that, while not native, mustangs are a "culturally significant" part of the American West, and acknowledge some form of population control is needed.[113] Another viewpoint is that mustangs reinhabited an ecological niche vacated when horses went extinct in North America,[114] with a variant characterization that horses are a reintroduced native species that should be legally classified as "wild" rather than "feral" and managed as wildlife. The "native species" argument centers on the premise that the horses extirpated in the Americas 10,000 years ago are closely related to the modern horse as was reintroduced.[115][116] Thus, this debate centers in part on the question of whether horses developed an ecomorphotype adapted to the ecosystem as it changed in the intervening 10,000 years.[113]

The Wildlife Society views mustangs as an introduced species stating: "Since native North American horses went extinct, the western United States has become more arid ... notably changing the ecosystem and ecological roles horses and burros play." and that they draw resources and attention away from true native species.[117] A 2013 report by the National Research Council of the U.S. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine took issue with the view of the horse being a reintroduced native species stating that "the complex of animals and vegetation has changed since horses were extirpated from North America". It also stated that the distinction between native or non-native was not the issue, but rather the "priority that BLM gives to free-ranging horses and burros on federal lands, relative to other uses".[118]

Mustang supporters advocate for the BLM to rank mustangs higher in priority than it currently does, arguing that too little forage is allocated to mustangs relative to cattle and sheep.[119] Ranchers and others affiliated with the livestock industry favor a lower priority, arguing essentially that their livelihoods and rural economies are threatened because they depend upon the public land forage for their livestock.[120]

The debate as to what degree mustangs and cattle compete for forage is multifaceted. Horses are adapted by evolution to inhabit an ecological niche characterized by poor quality vegetation.[121] Advocates assert that most current mustang herds live in arid areas which cattle cannot fully utilize due to the lack of water sources.[122] Mustangs can cover vast distances to find food and water;[123] advocates assert that horses range 5–10 times as far as cattle to find forage, finding it in more inaccessible areas.[119] In addition, horses are "hindgut fermenters", meaning that they digest nutrients by means of the cecum rather than by a multi-chambered stomach.[124] While this means that they extract less energy from a given amount of forage, it also means that they can digest food faster and make up the difference in efficiency by increasing their consumption rate. In practical effect, by eating greater quantities, horses can obtain adequate nutrition from poorer forage than can ruminants such as cattle, and so can survive in areas where cattle will starve.[121]

However, while the BLM rates horses by animal unit (AUM) to eat the same amount of forage as a cow–calf pair (the baseline of 1.0 for the pair), studies of horse grazing patterns indicate that horses probably consume forage at a rate closer to 1.5 AUM.[125] Modern rangeland management also recommends removing all livestock[o] during the growing season to maximize re-growth of the forage. Year-round grazing by any non-native ungulate will degrade it,[126] particularly horses whose incisors allow them to graze plants very close to the ground, inhibiting recovery.[117] Management and adoption See also: Free-roaming horse management in North America Mustangs running free on a range located within BLM-managed land

The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) was tasked by Congress with protecting, managing, and controlling free-roaming horses and burros under the authority of the Wild and Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971 to ensure that healthy herds thrive on healthy rangelands under the 1976 Federal Land Policy and Management Act.[127] Difficulty arises because mustang herd sizes can multiply rapidly, increasing up to and possibly by over 20% every year, so population control presents a challenge. When unmanaged, population numbers can outstrip forage available, leading to starvation.[128]

There are few predators in the modern era capable of preying on healthy adult mustangs,[129] and for the most part, predators capable of limiting the growth of feral mustang herd sizes are not found in the same habitat as most modern feral herds.[130] Although wolves and mountain lions are two species known to prey on horses and in theory could control population growth,[130] in practice, predation is not a viable population control mechanism. Wolves were historically rare in, and currently do not inhabit, the Great Basin,[131] where the vast majority of mustangs roam. While they are documented to prey on feral horses in Alberta, Canada, there is no known documentation of wolf predation on free-roaming horses in the United States.[130] Mountain lions have been documented to prey on feral horses in the U.S., but in limited areas and small numbers,[129] and mostly foals.[130]

One of the BLM's key mandates under the 1971 law and amendments is to maintain Appropriate Management Levels (AML) of wild horses and burros in areas of public rangelands where they are managed by the federal government.[132] Control of the population to within AML is achieved through a capture program, although there are no specific guidelines or techniques used to round up mustangs. Most methods are quite stressful for the animals, even fatal.[133] The BLM allows the use of trucks, ATVs, helicopters, and firearms to chase the horses into holding pens or "traps". These methods have often resulted in extreme exhaustion, serious injuries, or even death to the horses. "Bait" traps are another common way mustangs are corralled, usually with hay or water being left in a camouflaged pen while varying types of trigger systems close gates behind the horses. Another, less destructive method uses a tamed horse, called a "Judas horse", which has been trained to lead wild horses into a pen or corral. Once the mustangs are herded into an area near the holding pen, the Judas horse is released. Its job is then to move to the head of the herd and lead them into a confined area.[134] The Wild Mustang Project in Idaho is a project of 4-H and BLM to help increase adoption rates of mustangs.

Since 1978, captured horses have been offered for adoption to individuals or groups willing and able to provide humane, long-term care. For decades this was after payment of a base adoption fee of $125, but in March 2019, in face of the mustang overpopulation, the BLM began paying people $1,000 to adopt a mustang. Adopted horses are still protected under the Act, for one year after adoption, at which point the adopter can obtain title to the horse.[100][135] Horses that could not be adopted were to be humanely euthanized.[127] Instead of euthanizing excess horses, the BLM began keeping them in "long term holding", an expensive alternative[136] that can cost taxpayers up to $50,000 per horse over its lifetime.[103] On December 8, 2004, a rider amending the Wild and Free Roaming Horse and Burro Act was attached to an appropriation bill before the Congress by former Senator Conrad Burns. This modified the adoption program to also allow the unlimited sale of captured horses that are "more than 10 years of age", or that were "offered unsuccessfully for adoption at least three times". Since 1978, there had been specific language in the Act forbidding the BLM from selling the horses to those who would take them to slaughter, but the Burns Amendment removed that language.[127][137] In order to prevent horses being sold to slaughter, the BLM has implemented policies limiting sales and requiring buyers to certify they will not take the horses to slaughter.[64] In 2017, the first Trump administration began pushing Congress to remove barriers to implementing both the option to euthanize and sell excess horses.[103]

Despite efforts to try to increase the number of horses adopted, such as the Extreme Mustang Makeover, a promotional competition that gives trainers 100 days to gentle and train 100 mustangs so they may be adopted through auction,[138] adoption numbers do not come close to finding homes for the excess horses. Ten thousand foals were expected to be born on range in 2017,[103] whereas only 2500 horses were expected to be adopted. Alternatives to roundups for on range population control include fertility control, by PZP injection, culling, and natural regulation.[103]

Captured horses are freeze branded on the left side of the neck by the BLM, using the International Alpha Angle System, a system of angles and alpha-symbols that cannot be altered. The brands begin with a symbol indicating the registering organization, in this case the U.S. government, then two stacked figures indicating the individual horse's year of birth, then the individual registration number. Captured horses kept in sanctuaries are also marked on the left hip with four inch-high Arabic numerals that are also the last four digits of the freeze brand on the neck.[139]

There is debate if the freeze brands are helping to deter illegal slaughter and facilitate tracking after adoption or sale. Some herds managed by the United States Forest Service (USFS), such as those on the Devil's Garden Plateau, have shifted toward implanting microchips as an alternative identification method. In recent years, the BLM has also explored limited pilot programs to microchip horses in addition to freeze branding, citing improvements in tracking and welfare management.[140] See also

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Notes

Przewalski's horse (Equus ferus przewalskii) is possibly the only remaining true extant wild horse, but recent studies suggest Przewalski's horse may have been briefly domesticated millennia ago.[2][3] Examples include the Herd Management Areas in California and Idaho.[21][22]
See, e.g., High Rock[30] and Carter Reservoir HMAs, California;[31] Twin Peaks HMA, California/Nevada;[32] and Black Mountain HMA, Idaho.[33] Some horses in the Pryor range are said to be under 14 hands (56 inches, 142 cm),[35] Horses estimated at up to 16 hands (64 inches, 163 cm) are found at HMAs such as Devils Garden Wild Horse Territory, California,[36] and Challis HMA, Idaho.[34] Apache was a Pueblo word meaning 'enemy', and some early accounts referred to all hostile tribes generically as "Apaches" regardless of which tribe was involved.[49] Horses did not arrive in the Great Basin until the 1850s.[52]
The Western Shoshone occupied the interior of the Great Basin, and did not have access to horses until after 1850.[52] It was there and the southern Great Plains where Dobie stated the "Spanish horses found vast American ranges corresponding in climate and soil to the arid lands of Spain, northern Africa and Arabia in which they originated".[59] The OED cites Sources Mississ. III 273 for Pike; and "Journal, 5 Sept." in Texas State Historical Association Quarterly (1904) VII. 300, for Austin.[63] Tom L. McKnight c. 1929–2004, PhD Wisconsin 1955, professor of geography, UCLA.[67]
"Ed" de Steiguer PhD, professor at the University of Arizona.[69]
The area was also known as the "Wild Horse Desert"[73] or "Mustang Desert".[68]
Although for the most part, the Native Americans in the Great Basin Desert did not have horses, the Bannocks were an offshoot of the Northern Paiute in southern Oregon and northwest Oregon[52] that developed a horse culture. They may have the tribe that attacked a member of the Ogden party at the Humboldt Sinks in 1829.[78] A few hundred free-roaming horses survive in Alberta and British Columbia
"Livestock" in this context includes sheep, cattle, and horses.[126]


References

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Using Science to Improve the BLM Wild Horse and Burro Program: A Way Forward. Washington DC: Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources, Division on Earth and Life Studies, National Research Council, National Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-26497-6. Sherrets, Harold (1984). "The Taylor Grazing Act, 1934-1984, 50 Years of Progress, Impacts of Wild Horses on Rangeland Management". Boise: Bureau of Land Management, Idaho State Office. Wyman, Walker D. (1966) [1945]. The Wild Horse of the West. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-5223-3. Further reading Wikimedia Commons logo Wikimedia Commons has media related to Feral horses from America. Roe, Frank Gilbert (1974) [1955]. The Indian and the Horse. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. Luís, Cristina; Bastos-Silveira, Cristiane; Cothran, E. Gus; Oom, Maria do Mar (December 21, 2005). "Iberian Origins Of New World Horse Breeds". Journal of Heredity. 97 (2): 107–113. doi:10.1093/jhered/esj020. PMID 16489143. Morin, Paula (2006) Honest Horses: Wild Horses of the Great Basin. Reno: University of Nevada Press Nimmo, D. G.; Miller, K. K. (2007) Ecological and human dimensions of management of feral horses in Australia: A review. Wildlife Research, 34, 408–417 Text of Wild Free-Roaming Horse and Burro Act of 1971 External links US BLM Wild Horse and Burro Program vte Horse breeds of Canada and the United States These are the horse breeds considered to originate wholly or partly in Canada and the United States. Many have complex or obscure histories, so inclusion here does not necessarily imply that a breed is predominantly or exclusively from those countries. The † symbol indicates an extinct breed. Alberta Wild Horse American Bashkir Curly American Belgian Draft American Cream Draft American Crème Horse American Drum Horse American Indian Horse American Miniature Horse American Paint Horse American Quarter Horse American Saddlebred American Shetland Pony American Sorraia Mustang American Spotted American Spotted Paso American Walking Pony American Warmblood American White Horse Appaloosa Assateague Pony Banker Blazer Camarillo White Horse Canadian Canadian Pacer† Canadian Pinto Canadian Rustic Pony Canadian Sport Horse Canadian Warmblood Carolina Marsh Tacky Cerbat mustang Cherokee Horse Chickasaw† Chincoteague Pony Choctaw Horse Colonial Spanish Colorado Ranger Conestoga Horse† Cumberland Island Florida Cracker Horse Kanata Pony Kentucky Mountain Saddle Horse Kiger mustang Lac La Croix Indian Pony Missouri Fox Trotter Morab Morgan Morocco Spotted Mountain Pleasure Horse Mustang Narragansett Pacer† National Show Horse Newfoundland Nez Perce Horse Nokota North American Sportpony Pony of the Americas Pryor Mountain mustang Quarab Quarter Pony Racking Horse Rocky Mountain Horse Sable Island Spanish Jennet Horse Spanish Barb Spanish Mustang Spanish Norman Spotted Saddle Horse Standardbred Tennessee Walking Horse Tiger Virginia Highlander Welara List of horse breeds Categories: Horse breedsFeral horses of the United StatesFauna of the Great BasinMammals of North AmericaMammals of the United States

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For other uses, see Chocolate (disambiguation). Chocolate bars in dark, white, and milk variants (top to bottom). Chocolate is a food made from roasted and ground cocoa beans. It can be a liquid, solid, or paste. It is eaten on its own and used to flavor other foods. Cocoa beans are the processed seeds of the cacao tree (Theobroma cacao). They are usually fermented to develop the flavor, then dried, cleaned, and roasted. The shell is removed to reveal nibs, which are ground to chocolate liquor (unadulterated chocolate in rough form.) The liquor can be further processed into cocoa butter and cocoa powder, or shaped and sold as unsweetened baking chocolate. By adding sugar, sweetened chocolates are produced, which can be sold simply as dark chocolate, or, with the addition of milk, can be made into milk chocolate. Making chocolate with only cocoa butter and milk produces white chocolate. Chocolate is one of the most popular food types and flavors in the world, and many foodstuffs include chocolate, particularly desserts, including ice creams, cakes, mousse, and cookies. Many candies are filled with or coated with sweetened chocolate. Chocolate bars, either made of solid chocolate or other ingredients coated in chocolate, are eaten as snacks. Gifts of chocolate molded into different shapes (such as eggs, hearts, and coins) are traditional on certain holidays, including Christmas, Easter, Valentine's Day, Hanukkah and Eid al-Fitr. Chocolate is also used in cold and hot beverages, such as chocolate milk, hot chocolate and chocolate liqueur. The cacao tree was first used as a source for food in what is today Ecuador at least 5,300 years ago. Mesoamerican civilizations widely consumed cacao beverages, and in the 16th century, one of these beverages, chocolate, was introduced to Europe. Until the 19th century, chocolate was a drink consumed by societal elite. In the wake of technological advances chocolate became a mass-consumed solid food. Cocoa beans for most chocolate are grown in West African countries, particularly Ivory Coast and Ghana, which contribute about 60% of the world's cocoa supply. Etymology The Maya glyph for cacao Chocolate is a Spanish loanword, first recorded in English in 1604,[1][a] and in Spanish in 1579.[2] The word's origins beyond this are contentious.[3] Despite a popular belief that chocolate derives from the Nahuatl word chocolatl, early texts documenting the Nahuatl word for chocolate drink use a different term, cacahuatl, meaning "cacao water". Several alternatives have therefore been proposed.[4] In one, chocolate is derived from the hypothetical Nahuatl word xocoatl, meaning "bitter drink". Scholars Michael and Sophie Coe consider this unlikely, saying that there is no clear reason why the 'sh' sound represented by 'x' would change to 'ch', or why an 'l' would be added.[4] Another theory suggests that chocolate comes from chocolatl, meaning 'hot water' in a Mayan language. However, there is no evidence of the form 'chocol' being used to mean hot.[4] Despite the uncertainty about its Nahuatl origin, there is some agreement that chocolate likely derives from the Nawat word chikola:tl.[5] Whether chikola:tl means 'cacao-beater', referring to whisking cocoa to create foam, is contested, as the meaning of chico is unknown.[6] According to anthropologist Kathryn Sampeck, chocolate originally referred to one cacao beverage among many, which included annatto and was made in what is today Guatemala. According to Sampeck, it became the generic word for cacao beverages c. 1580, when the Izalcos from that area were the most notable producers of cacao.[7] History Main article: History of chocolate Mexica. Man Carrying a Cacao Pod, 1440–1521 The cacao tree was domesticated as early as 5300 BP in South America, in present-day southeast Ecuador, by the Mayo-Chinchipe culture, before it was introduced to Mesoamerica.[8] It is unknown when chocolate was first consumed as opposed to other cacao-based drinks, and there is evidence the Olmecs, the earliest known major Mesoamerican civilization, fermented the sweet pulp surrounding the cacao beans into an alcoholic beverage.[9][10] Chocolate was extremely important to several Mesoamerican societies,[11] and cacao was considered a gift from the gods by the Mayans and the Aztecs.[12][13] The cocoa bean was used as a currency across civilizations and was used in ceremonies, as a tribute to leaders and gods and as a medicine.[14][15][16][17][18][19] Chocolate in Mesoamerica was a bitter drink, flavored with additives such as vanilla, earflower and chili, and was capped with a dark brown foam created by pouring the liquid from a height between containers.[20][21][22] Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés may have been the first European to encounter chocolate when he observed it in the court of Moctezuma II in 1520.[23][24] It proved to be an acquired taste,[25][26] and it took until 1585 for the first official recording of a shipment of cocoa beans to Europe.[27] Chocolate was believed to be an aphrodisiac and medicine, and spread across Europe in the 17th century, sweetened, served warm and flavored with familiar spices.[28][29][30] Religious orders played a significant role in its dissemination.[31] It was initially primarily consumed by the elite, with expensive cocoa supplied by colonial plantations in the Americas.[28] In the 18th century, it was considered southern European, aristocratic and Catholic, and was still produced in a similar way to the way it had been produced by the Aztecs.[32] One of the first mass-produced chocolate bars, Fry's Chocolate Cream, was produced by Fry's in 1866.[33][34] Starting in the 18th century, chocolate production was improved. In the 19th century, engine-powered milling was developed.[35][36] In 1828, Coenraad Johannes van Houten patented a hydraulic press that separated cocoa butter from chocolate liquor, enabling the mass production of defatted cocoa powder and creating the foundation for the modern solid chocolate industry.[37] Other developments in the 19th century, including the melanger (a mixing machine), modern milk chocolate, the conching process to make chocolate smoother and change the flavor meant a worker in 1890 could produce fifty times more chocolate with the same labor than they could before the Industrial Revolution, and chocolate became a food to be eaten rather than drunk.[38] As production moved from the Americas to Asia and Africa, mass markets in Western nations for chocolate opened up.[39] In the early 20th century, British chocolate producers including Cadbury and Fry's faced controversy over the labor conditions in the Portuguese cacao industry in Africa. A 1908 report by a Cadbury agent described conditions as "de facto slavery."[40] While conditions somewhat improved with a boycott by chocolate makers,[36][41] slave labor among African cacao growers again gained public attention in the early 21st century.[42] In the 20th century, chocolate production further developed, with development of the tempering technique to improve the snap and gloss of chocolate and the addition of lecithin to improve texture and consistency.[43][44] White and couverture chocolate were developed in the 20th century and the bean-to-bar trade model began.[45][46][47] Types Main article: Types of chocolate Barks made of different varieties of chocolate Several types of chocolate can be distinguished. Pure, unsweetened chocolate, often called "baking chocolate", contains primarily non-fat cocoa solids and cocoa butter in varying proportions. Much of the chocolate consumed today is in the form of sweet chocolate, which combines chocolate with sugar. Eating chocolate The traditional types of chocolate are dark, milk and white. All of them contain cocoa butter, which is the ingredient defining the physical properties of chocolate (consistency and melting temperature). Plain (or dark) chocolate, as its name suggests, is a form of chocolate that is similar to pure cocoa liquor, although is usually made with a slightly higher proportion of cocoa butter.[48] It is simply defined by its cocoa percentage. In milk chocolate, the non-fat cocoa solids are partly or mostly replaced by milk solids.[49] In white chocolate, they are all replaced by milk solids, hence its ivory color.[50] Other forms of eating chocolate exist, these include raw chocolate (made with unroasted beans) and ruby chocolate. An additional popular form of eating chocolate, gianduja, is made by incorporating nut paste (typically hazelnut) to the chocolate paste.[51] Other types Other types of chocolate are used in baking and confectionery. These include baking chocolate (often unsweetened), couverture chocolate (used for coating), compound chocolate (a lower-cost alternative) and modeling chocolate. Modeling chocolate is a chocolate paste made by melting chocolate and combining it with corn syrup, glucose syrup, or golden syrup.[52] Cacao Chocolate is created from the cocoa bean. A cacao tree with fruit pods in various stages of ripening. Chocolate is made from cocoa beans, the dried and often fermented seeds of the cacao tree (Theobroma cacao), a small, 4–8 m (13–26 ft) tall evergreen tree native to South America. The most common genotype originated in the Amazon basin, and was gradually transported by humans throughout South and Central America. Early forms of another genotype have also been found in what is now Venezuela. The scientific name, Theobroma, means "food of the gods".[53] The fruit, called a cocoa pod, is ovoid, 15–30 cm (6–12 in) long and 8–10 cm (3–4 in) wide, ripening yellow to orange, and weighing about 500 g (1.1 lb) when ripe. Cacao trees are small, understory trees that need rich, well-drained soils. They naturally grow within 20° of either side of the equator because they need about 2000 mm of rainfall a year, and temperatures in the range of 21–32 °C (70–90 °F). Cacao trees cannot tolerate a temperature lower than 15 °C (59 °F).[54] The genome of the cacao tree was sequenced in 2010.[55] Traditionally, cacao was understood to be divided into three varieties: Criollo, Forastero, and Trinitario. New genetic research has not found a genetic backing for this division, and it has identified eleven genetic clusters.[56] Processing Cocoa pods are harvested by cutting them from the tree using a machete, or by knocking them off the tree using a stick. Pods are harvested when they are ripe, as beans in unripe pods have a low cocoa butter content, or low sugar content, impacting the ultimate flavor. Cocoa beans Fermenting cocoa beans The beans, which are sterile within their pods, and their surrounding pulp are removed from the pods and placed in piles or bins to ferment. Micro-organisms, present naturally in the environment, ferment the seeds. Yeasts produce ethanol, lactic acid bacteria produce lactic acid, and acetic acid bacteria produce acetic acid. The fermentation process, which takes up to seven days, produces several flavor precursors, that eventually provide the chocolate taste.[57] After fermentation, the beans are dried to prevent mold growth. Where the weather permits it, this is done by spreading the beans out in the sun for five to seven days.[58] The dried beans are then transported to a chocolate manufacturing facility. The beans are cleaned (removing twigs, stones, and other debris), roasted, and graded. Next, the shell of each bean is removed to extract the nib.[59] From nibs to chocolate A chocolate mill (right) grinds and heats cocoa kernels into chocolate liquor. A melanger (left) mixes milk, sugar, and other ingredients into the liquor. Next, the nibs are ground, producing chocolate liquor.[59] The liquor can be further processed into cocoa powder and cocoa butter.[60] A longitudinal conche The penultimate process is called conching. A conche is a container filled with metal beads, which act as grinders. The refined and blended chocolate mass is kept in a liquid state by frictional heat. Before conching, chocolate has an uneven and gritty texture. The conching process produces cocoa and sugar particles smaller than the tongue can detect (typically around 20 μm) and reduces rough edges, hence the smooth feel in the mouth. The length of the conching process determines the final smoothness and quality of the chocolate. After the process is complete, the chocolate mass is stored in tanks heated to about 45–50 °C (113–122 °F) until final processing.[61] After conching, chocolate is tempered to crystallize a small amount of cocoa butter. Cocoa butter is a polymorphic fat with six different crystal forms, but only one of them—Form V—gives chocolate its characteristic snap, gloss, and stable texture. Tempering eliminates the undesirable crystal forms and promotes the formation of Form V.[62][63][64] After chocolate has been tempered, it is molded into different shapes, including chocolate bars and chocolate chips.[65] Storage Chocolate is very sensitive to temperature and humidity. Ideal storage temperatures are between 15 and 17 °C (59 and 63 °F), with a relative humidity of less than 50%. If refrigerated or frozen without containment, chocolate can absorb enough moisture to cause a whitish discoloration, the result of fat or sugar crystals rising to the surface. Various types of "blooming" effects can occur if chocolate is stored or served improperly.[66] Chocolate bloom is caused by storage temperature fluctuating or exceeding 24 °C (75 °F), while sugar bloom is caused by temperature below 15 °C (59 °F) or excess humidity. A fat bloom can be distinguished by touch; it disappears if the surface of affected chocolate is lightly rubbed. Although visually unappealing, chocolate suffering from bloom is safe for consumption and taste is unaffected.[67][68][69] Bloom can be reversed by retempering the chocolate or using it for any use that requires melting the chocolate.[70] Chocolate is generally stored away from other foods, as it can absorb aromas. To avoid this, chocolate is packed or wrapped, then stored in darkness, in ideal humidity and temperature conditions.[71] Health effects This article needs more reliable medical references for verification or relies too heavily on primary sources, specifically: Outdated research, i.e. lead citing 2005 research. Please review the contents of the article and add the appropriate references if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Chocolate" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2024) Candies, milk chocolateNutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy 2,240 kJ (540 kcal) Carbohydrates 59.4 Sugars 51.5 g Dietary fiber 3.4 g Fat 29.7 Protein 7.6 g Vitamins and minerals Other constituents Quantity Water 1.5 g Caffeine 20 mg Cholesterol 23 mg Theobromine 205 mg Link to USDA Database entry †Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[72] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[73] Nutrition One hundred grams of milk chocolate supplies 540 calories. It is 59% carbohydrates (52% as sugar and 3% as dietary fiber), 30% fat and 8% protein (table). Approximately 65% of the fat in milk chocolate is saturated, mainly palmitic acid and stearic acid, while the predominant unsaturated fat is oleic acid (table). One hundred grams of milk chocolate is an excellent source (over 19% of the Daily Value, DV) of riboflavin, vitamin B12 and the dietary minerals manganese, phosphorus and zinc. Chocolate is a good source (10–19% DV) of calcium, magnesium and iron. Phytochemicals See also: Polyphenol § Research Chocolate contains polyphenols, especially flavan-3-ols (catechins) and smaller amounts of other flavonoids.[74][75] It also contains alkaloids, such as theobromine, phenethylamine, and caffeine,[76] which are under study for their potential effects in the body.[77] Heavy metals A chocolate bar in a bowl of melted chocolate It is unlikely that chocolate consumption in small amounts causes lead poisoning. Some studies have shown that lead may bind to cocoa shells, and contamination may occur during the manufacturing process.[78] One study showed the mean lead level in milk chocolate candy bars was 0.027 μg lead per gram of candy.[78] Another study found that some chocolate purchased at U.S. supermarkets contained up to 0.965 μg per gram, close to the international (voluntary) standard limit for lead in cocoa powder or beans, which is 1 μg of lead per gram.[79] In 2006, the U.S. FDA lowered by one-fifth the amount of lead permissible in candy, but compliance is only voluntary.[80] Studies concluded that "children, who are big consumers of chocolates, may be at risk of exceeding the daily limit of lead, [as] one 10 g cube of dark chocolate may contain as much as 20% of the daily lead oral limit. Moreover chocolate may not be the only source of lead in their nutrition"[81] and "chocolate might be a significant source of cadmium and lead ingestion, particularly for children."[82] According to a 2005 study, the average lead concentration of cocoa beans is ≤ 0.5 ng/g, which is one of the lowest reported values for a natural food.[78] However, during cultivation and production, chocolate may absorb lead from the environment (such as in atmospheric emissions of now unused leaded gasoline).[78][83] The European Food Safety Authority recommended a tolerable weekly intake for cadmium of 2.5 micrograms per kg of body weight for Europeans, indicating that consuming chocolate products caused exposure of about 4% among all foods eaten.[84][85] Maximum levels for baby foods and chocolate/cocoa products were established under Commission Regulation (EU) No 488/2014.[86] 1986 California Proposition 65 requires a warning label on chocolate products having more than 4.1 mg of cadmium per daily serving of a single product.[87][88][89] Caffeine One tablespoonful (5 grams) of dry unsweetened cocoa powder has 12.1 mg of caffeine[90] and a 25-g single serving of dark chocolate has 22.4 mg of caffeine.[91] This is much less than the amount found in coffee, of which a single 7 oz. (200 ml) serving may contain 80–175 mg of caffeine,[92] though studies have shown psychoactive effects in caffeine doses as low as 9 mg, and a dose as low as 12.5 mg was shown to have effects on cognitive performance.[93] Theobromine and oxalate Chocolate may be a factor for heartburn in some people because one of its constituents, theobromine, may affect the esophageal sphincter muscle in a way that permits stomach acids to enter the esophagus.[94] Theobromine poisoning is an overdosage reaction to the bitter alkaloid, which happens more frequently in domestic animals than humans. However, daily intake of 50–100 g cocoa (0.8–1.5 g theobromine) by humans has been associated with sweating, trembling, and severe headache.[95] Chocolate and cocoa contain moderate to high amounts of oxalate,[96][97] which may increase the risk of kidney stones.[98] Toxicity to animals Main article: Theobromine poisoning In sufficient amounts, the theobromine found in chocolate is toxic to animals such as cats, dogs, horses, parrots, and small rodents because they are unable to metabolize the chemical effectively.[99] If animals are fed chocolate, the theobromine may remain in the circulation for up to 20 hours, possibly causing epileptic seizures, heart attacks, internal bleeding, and eventually death. Medical treatment performed by a veterinarian involves inducing vomiting within two hours of ingestion and administration of benzodiazepines or barbiturates for seizures, antiarrhythmics for heart arrhythmias, and fluid diuresis. A typical 20-kilogram (44 lb) dog will normally experience great intestinal distress after eating less than 240 grams (8.5 oz) of dark chocolate, but will not necessarily experience bradycardia or tachycardia unless it eats at least a half a kilogram (1.1 lb) of milk chocolate. Dark chocolate has 2 to 5 times more theobromine and thus is more dangerous to dogs. According to the Merck Veterinary Manual, approximately 1.3 grams of baker's chocolate per kilogram of a dog's body weight (0.02 oz/lb) is sufficient to cause symptoms of toxicity. For example, a typical 25-gram (0.88 oz) baker's chocolate bar would be enough to bring about symptoms in a 20-kilogram (44 lb) dog. In the 20th century, there were reports that mulch made from cocoa bean shells is dangerous to dogs and livestock.[100][101] Research Commonly consumed chocolate is high in fat and sugar, which are associated with an increased risk for obesity when chocolate is consumed in excess.[102] Overall evidence is insufficient to determine the relationship between chocolate consumption and acne.[103][104] Various studies point not to chocolate, but to the high glycemic nature of certain foods, like sugar, corn syrup, and other simple carbohydrates, as potential causes of acne,[103][104][105][106] along with other possible dietary factors.[103][107] Food, including chocolate, is not typically viewed as addictive.[108] Some people, however, may want or crave chocolate,[108] leading to a self-described term, chocoholic.[108][109] By some popular myths, chocolate is considered to be a mood enhancer, such as by increasing sex drive or stimulating cognition, but there is little scientific evidence that such effects are consistent among all chocolate consumers.[110][111] If mood improvement from eating chocolate occurs, there is not enough research to indicate whether it results from the favorable flavor or from the stimulant effects of its constituents, such as caffeine, theobromine, or their parent molecule, methylxanthine.[111] A 2019 review reported that chocolate consumption does not improve depressive mood.[112] Reviews support a short-term effect of lowering blood pressure by consuming cocoa products, but there is limited evidence of long-term cardiovascular health benefit.[113][114] Chocolate and cocoa are under preliminary research to determine if consumption affects the risk of certain cardiovascular diseases.[115] Daily consumption of cocoa flavanols (minimum dose of 200 mg) appears to benefit platelet and vascular function.[116][117][118] Labeling Some manufacturers provide the percentage of chocolate in a finished chocolate confection as a label quoting percentage of "cocoa" or "cacao". This refers to the combined percentage of both non-fat cocoa solids and cocoa butter in the bar, although their individual proportions are not specified.[119] The Belgian AMBAO certification mark indicates that no non-cocoa vegetable fats have been used in making the chocolate.[120][121] A long-standing dispute between Britain on the one hand and Belgium and France over British use of vegetable fats in chocolate ended in 2000 with the adoption of new standards which permitted the use of up to five percent vegetable fats in clearly labelled products.[122] Chocolates that are organic[123] or fair trade certified[124] carry labels accordingly. Legal definitions In the US, the Food and Drug Administration does not allow a product to be referred to as "chocolate" if the product contains any of these ingredients.[125][126] In the EU a product can be sold as chocolate if it contains up to 5% vegetable oil, and must be labeled as "family milk chocolate" rather than "milk chocolate" if it contains 20% milk.[127] According to Canadian Food and Drug Regulations, a "chocolate product" is a food product that is sourced from at least one "cocoa product" and contains at least one of the following: "chocolate, bittersweet chocolate, semi-sweet chocolate, dark chocolate, sweet chocolate, milk chocolate, or white chocolate". A "cocoa product" is defined as a food product that is sourced from cocoa beans and contains "cocoa nibs, cocoa liquor, cocoa mass, unsweetened chocolate, bitter chocolate, chocolate liquor, cocoa, low-fat cocoa, cocoa powder, or low-fat cocoa powder".[128] Industry Main article: Chocolate industry Packaged chocolate in the Ghirardelli Chocolate Company Chocolate is a steadily growing, US$50 billion-a-year worldwide business as of 2009.[129] As of 2006, Europe accounted for 45% of the world's chocolate revenue,[130] and the US spent $20 billion in 2013.[131] Big Chocolate is a grouping of major international chocolate companies in Europe and the US. In 2004, Mars and Hershey's alone accounted for two-thirds of US production.[132] Chocolate shop of a family chocolate factory in Slovenia Early in the 21st century, roughly two-thirds of the world's cocoa was produced in West Africa, with 43% sourced from Ivory Coast, which commonly used child labor.[133] That year some 50 million people around the world depended on cocoa as a source of livelihood.[134] As of 2007 in the UK, most chocolatiers purchase their chocolate from them, to melt, mold and package to their own design.[135] The two main jobs associated with creating chocolate candy are chocolate makers and chocolatiers. Chocolate makers use harvested cocoa beans and other ingredients to produce couverture chocolate (covering). Chocolatiers use the finished couverture to make chocolate candies (bars and truffles). Production costs can be decreased by reducing cocoa content, usually by substituting cocoa butter with another fat. Cocoa growers object to allowing the resulting food to be called "chocolate", due to the risk of lower demand for their crops.[134] Manufacturers Further information: List of bean-to-bar chocolate manufacturers Chocolate with various fillings Chocolate manufacturers produce a range of products from chocolate bars to fudge. Large manufacturers of chocolate products include Cadbury, Ferrero, Guylian, The Hershey Company, Lindt & Sprüngli, Mars, Incorporated, Milka, Neuhaus and Suchard. Guylian is best known for its chocolate sea shells; Cadbury for its Dairy Milk and Creme Egg. The Hershey Company, the largest chocolate manufacturer in North America, produces the Hershey Bar and Hershey's Kisses.[136] Mars Incorporated, a large privately owned U.S. corporation, produces Mars Bar, Milky Way, M&M's, Twix, and Snickers. Lindt is known for its truffle balls and gold foil-wrapped Easter bunnies. Food conglomerates Nestlé SA and Mondelēz both have chocolate brands. Nestlé acquired Rowntree's in 1988 and now markets chocolates under their brand, including Smarties (a chocolate candy) and Kit Kat (a chocolate bar); Kraft Foods through its 1990 acquisition of Jacobs Suchard, now owns Milka and Suchard. Fry's, Trebor Basset and the fair trade brand Green & Black's also belongs to the group. Child labor in cocoa harvesting Main article: Child labour in cocoa production See also: Cocoa production in Ivory Coast and Cocoa production in Ghana Child drying cacao in Chuao, Venezuela The widespread use of children in cocoa production is controversial, not only for the concerns about child labor and exploitation, but also because according to a 2002 estimate, up to 12,000 of the 200,000 children then working in the Ivory Coast cocoa industry[137] may have been victims of trafficking or slavery.[138] Most attention on this subject has focused on West Africa, which collectively supplies 69 percent of the world's cocoa,[139] and the Ivory Coast in particular, which supplies 35 percent of the world's cocoa.[139] Thirty percent of children under age 15 in sub-Saharan Africa are child laborers, mostly in agricultural activities including cocoa farming.[140] Major chocolate producers, such as Nestlé, buy cocoa at commodities exchanges where Ivorian cocoa is mixed with other cocoa.[141] As of 2017, approximately 2.1 million children in Ghana and Ivory Coast were involved in farming cocoa, carrying heavy loads, clearing forests, and being exposed to pesticides.[142] As of 2018, a 3-year pilot program – conducted by Nestlé with 26,000 farmers mostly located in Ivory Coast – observed a 51% decrease in the number of children doing hazardous jobs in cocoa farming.[143] The US Department of Labor formed the Child Labor Cocoa Coordinating Group as a public-private partnership with the governments of Ghana and Ivory Coast to address child labor practices in the cocoa industry.[144] The International Cocoa Initiative involving major cocoa manufacturers established the Child Labor Monitoring and Remediation System to monitor thousands of farms in Ghana and Ivory Coast for child labor conditions,[143][142] but the program reached less than 20% of the child laborers.[145] In April 2018, the Cocoa Barometer report stated: "Not a single company or government is anywhere near reaching the sector-wide objective of the elimination of child labor, and not even near their commitments of a 70% reduction of child labor by 2020". They cited persistent poverty, the absence of schools, increasing world cocoa demand, more intensive farming of cocoa, and continued exploitation of child labor.[143][146] Fair trade Main article: Fair trade cocoa In the 2000s, some chocolate producers began to engage in fair trade initiatives, to address concerns about the low pay of cocoa laborers in developing countries. Traditionally, Africa and other developing countries received low prices for their exported commodities such as cocoa, which caused poverty. Fairtrade seeks to establish a system of direct trade from developing countries to counteract this system.[147] One solution for fair labor practices is for farmers to become part of an agricultural cooperative. Cooperatives pay farmers a fair price for their cocoa so farmers have enough money for food, clothes, and school fees.[148] One of the main tenets of fair trade is that farmers receive a fair price, but this does not mean that the larger amount of money paid for fair trade cocoa goes directly to the farmers. The effectiveness of fair trade has been questioned. In a 2014 article, The Economist stated that workers on fair trade farms have a lower standard of living than on similar farms outside the fair trade system[149] based on a study of tea and coffee farmers in Uganda and Ethiopia.[150] Usage and consumption A Cadbury chocolate bar Chocolate is sold in chocolate bars, which come in dark chocolate, milk chocolate and white chocolate varieties. Some bars that are mostly chocolate have other ingredients blended into the chocolate, such as nuts, raisins, or crisped rice. Chocolate is used as an ingredient in a huge variety of bars, which typically contain various confectionary ingredients (e.g., nougat, wafers, caramel, nuts) which are coated in chocolate. Chocolate cake with chocolate frosting Chocolate is used as a flavoring product in many desserts, such as chocolate cakes, chocolate brownies, chocolate mousse and chocolate chip cookies. Numerous types of candy and snacks contain chocolate, either as a filling (e.g., M&M's) or as a coating (e.g., chocolate-coated raisins or chocolate-coated peanuts). Some non-alcoholic beverages contain chocolate, such as chocolate milk, hot chocolate, chocolate milkshakes and tejate. Some alcoholic liqueurs are flavored with chocolate, such as chocolate liqueur and crème de cacao. Chocolate is a popular flavor of ice cream and pudding, and chocolate sauce is a commonly added as a topping on ice cream sundaes. The caffè mocha is an espresso beverage containing chocolate. Eating experience The experience of eating chocolate varies with the ingredients used. More sugary chocolates have a flavor that is more immediately apparent, while chocolates with higher cocoa percentages have flavors that take longer to be perceived but stay on the palate for longer. These chocolates with more cocoa are increasingly bitter.[151] Society and culture Chocolate is perceived to be different things at different times, including a sweet treat, a luxury product, a consumer good and a mood enhancer,[152] the latter reputation in part driven by marketing.[153] Chocolate is a popular metaphor for the black racial category.[154] It has connotations of transgression and sexuality[155][156] and is gendered as feminine.[157] In the US there is a cultural practice of women consuming chocolate in secret; alone and with other women.[158] Children use chocolate as a euphemism for feces.[159] Chocolate is popularly understood to have "exotic" origins,[160] In China, chocolate is considered "heaty", and avoided in hot weather.[161] Hanukkah gelt A gift box of chocolates, which is a common gift for Valentine's Day Chocolate is associated with festivals such as Easter, when molded chocolate rabbits and eggs are traditionally given in Christian communities, and Hanukkah, when chocolate coins are given in Jewish communities. Chocolate hearts and chocolate in heart-shaped boxes are popular on Valentine's Day and are often presented along with flowers and a greeting card[33][162] Boxes of filled chocolates quickly became associated with the holiday.[33] Chocolate is an acceptable gift on other holidays and on occasions such as birthdays. Many confectioners make holiday-specific chocolate candies. Chocolate Easter eggs or rabbits and Santa Claus figures are two examples. Such confections can be solid, hollow, or filled with sweets or fondant. In 1964, Roald Dahl published a children's novel titled Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. The novel centers on a poor boy named Charlie Bucket who takes a tour through the greatest chocolate factory in the world, owned by the eccentric Willy Wonka.[163] Two film adaptations of the novel were produced: Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory (1971) and Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (2005). A third adaptation, an origin prequel film titled Wonka, was released in 2023.[164] Chocolat, a 1999 novel by Joanne Harris, was adapted for film in Chocolat which was released a year later.[165] Some artists have utilized chocolate in their art; Dieter Roth was influential in this beginning with his works in the 1960s casting human and animal figures in chocolate, which used the chocolate's inevitable decay to comment on contemporary attitudes towards the permanence of museum displays. Other works have played on the audience's ability to consume displayed chocolate, encouraged in Sonja Alhäuser's Exhibition Basics (2001) and painfully disallowed in Edward Ruscha's Chocolate Room (1970). In the 1980s and 90s, performance artists Karen Finley and Janine Antoni used chocolate's cultural popular associations of excrement and consumption, and desirability respectively to comment on the status of women in society.[166] Flavors Mint chocolate (or chocolate mint) is an individual flavor of chocolate, made by adding a mint flavoring, such as peppermint, spearmint, or crème de menthe, to chocolate. Mint chocolate can be found in a wide variety of confectionery items, such as candy, mints, cookies, mint chocolate chip ice cream, hot chocolate, and others. It is also marketed in a non-edible format in cosmetics with a distinctive mint fragrance. The chocolate component can be milk chocolate, regular dark chocolate, or white chocolate; due to this, mint chocolate has no one specific flavour, and so each chocolate-plus-flavor combination can be unique. The U.S. National Confectioners Association lists February 19 as "Chocolate Mint Day".[167] See also iconFood portaliconNutrition portalMesoamerica portal Main article: Outline of chocolate Candy making Glossary of chocolate terms List of chocolate-covered foods List of chocolate beverages List of chocolate companies Notes In: José de Acosta (1604). The naturall and morall historie of the East and West Indies. Vol. 1. Translated by Edward Grimeston (1st ed.). Edward Blount and William Aspley. The chiefe vse of this Cacao is in a drinke which they call Chocolate References "chocolate". Oxford English Dictionary (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/OED/4410701122. Retrieved 16 July 2024. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.) Archived 17 October 2025 at the Wayback Machine Swanton, de Ávila & van Doesburg (2010), p. 435. Swanton (2024), p. 23. Coe & Coe (2013), Crossing the Language Barrier. Kaufman & Justeson (2007), p. 193. Kaufman & Justeson (2007), p. 218; Dakin & Wichmann (2000), p. 63. Sampeck & Thayn (2017), pp. 78–79. Lanaud et al. 2024, p. 8 Coe & Coe (2013), The Tree of the Food of the Gods. Collins (2022), pp. 301–302. MacLeod (2000), p. 636. Vail (2008), p. 10. Collins (2022), pp. 160–162. Coe & Coe (2013), The Maya on the Eve of the Conquest. Leissle (2018), p. 34. Coe & Coe (2013), p. 95. Presilla (2009), pp. 12, 16, 22. Aguilar-Moreno (2006), p. 274. Grivetti (2008b), p. 68. Coe & Coe (2013), Flavorings, Spices, and Other Additions. Coe & Coe (2013), Cacao Preparation among the Late Maya. Coe & Coe (2013), Lords of the Forest: The Classic Maya. Dillinger et al. 2000, p. 2058S-2059S Grivetti (2008a), p. 100. Collins (2022), p. 285–288. Norton (2004), p. 15. Coe & Coe (2013), Cacao in Spain: "Chocolate Brought to Perfection". Coe & Coe (2013), Chocolate and the English. Coe & Coe (2013), New Spain and Central America. Coe & Coe (2013), Crossing the Taste Barrier. 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Cambridge University Press: 619–644. doi:10.1017/S0956536124000026. Swanton M, de Ávila A, van Doesburg B (2010). "Comments on Kaufman and Justeson: "The History of the Word for Cacao in Ancient Mesoamerica"". Ancient Mesoamerica. 21 (2): 415–441. doi:10.1017/S0956536111000186. Webpages Martin CD, Sampeck K (8 January 2021). "From Cocoa Farms to Candy Chutes". Anthropology News. Retrieved 14 September 2024. Further reading Norton, Marcy. Sacred Gifts, Profane Pleasures: A History of Tobacco and Chocolate in the Atlantic World (Cornell UP, 2008) Off C (2008). Bitter Chocolate: The Dark Side of the World's Most Seductive Sweet. The New Press. ISBN 978-1-59558-330-7. Presilla M (2004). "Chocolate". In Smith AF (ed.). The Oxford encyclopedia of food and drink in America, Volume 1. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517551-4. Ryan, Órla (2011). Chocolate Nations: Living and Dying for Cocoa in West Africa. Zed Books. ISBN 978-1-84813-005-0 Young, Allen M. (2007). The Chocolate Tree: A Natural History of Cacao (Rev. and expanded ed.). University Press of Florida. ISBN 978-0-8130-3044-9 External links Wikimedia Commons logo Media related to Chocolate at Wikimedia Commons Quotations related to Chocolate at Wikiquote Wiktionary logo The dictionary definition of chocolate at Wiktionary Wikibooks logo Cookbook:Chocolate at Wikibooks Wikisource logo Works related to Portal:Chocolate at Wikisource Wikivoyage logo Chocolate travel guide from Wikivoyage